Abstract:
Since the outbreak of the Russo-Ukrainian War, many pro-Russian supporters in China have shown unwavering and boundless loyalty to Russia, almost as though it were a natural, destined ally. However, over the 370 years of Sino-Russian relations, from the Yaksa Conflict of 1652 to the present day, China and Russia have only been genuinely friendly for less than 70 years—an insignificant portion of their shared history.
This article traces the evolution of Sino-Russian relations over the past three centuries, based on publicly available information from various sources.
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I. Prelude: The First Contact During the Tang Dynasty
The Eurasian landmass spans 54.738 million square kilometers, with China occupying 9.6 million and Russia covering 17.1 million square kilometers. Combined, the two nations account for approximately half of the \"World Island.\" However, the vastness we associate with these countries today did not exist at first. The true historical \"first contact\" between China and Russia occurred during the Tang Dynasty, marking a significant shift in the concept of \"space\" between the two empires.
In the 8th century, during the reign of Emperor Suzong of the Tang Dynasty, the Tang royal family sought military aid from the Uighur Khaganate to suppress the An Lushan Rebellion. As part of the agreement, Princess Xiao Ning of the Tang Dynasty was married to the Uighur Khagan, Engu Khan. This diplomatic tie led to a significant relationship between the two empires.
A thousand years later, in 1891, a small Chinese-style town and ancient castle, \"Borba-jen,\" was discovered in the southeastern part of the Russian Federation's Tuva Republic. In 2007-2008, further archaeological excavations took place at the site. Based on the discovery of Chinese-style artifacts, including roof tiles, animal-patterned bricks, and human-shaped beams, scholars speculated that this site may have been the summer palace of Princess Xiao Ning during her time with the Uighurs, constructed in the architectural style of the Tang Dynasty's capital cities. It is likely that Tang craftsmen were involved in its construction.
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II. From Yaksa to the Eight-Nation Alliance: A 25-Year Conflict
1. 1652–1689: The Treaty of Nerchinsk
In 1652, Russia's forces encountered their first military conflict with China in the Heilongjiang region. Five years later, the Russian Empire began constructing fortresses in Nerchinsk and Yaksa. After a series of military exchanges over the next 40 years, the two nations eventually reached the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689.
2. 1856–1860: The Second Opium War
In 1858, Russia coerced the Qing Empire into signing the Aihui Treaty, forcing China to cede approximately 600,000 square kilometers of territory. Two years later, the Treaty of Peking was signed, with Russia extracting an additional 400,000 square kilometers of land, sealing China's lack of access to the sea from the northeast. Russia's intervention during the Second Opium War, although not as militarily aggressive as Britain and France, allowed it to gain more territorial concessions under the guise of being a peace broker. Behind this diplomatic maneuver, however, lay Russia’s desire to recover its losses after its defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856), turning its focus eastward.
3. 1875–1876: The Treaty of Ili
In 1865, during a time of unrest in Xinjiang, Russia seized the opportunity to occupy Baku and other regions in the area. By 1871, Russia had invaded and occupied Ili, and despite the Qing Empire's efforts to quell the situation, Russia continued to hold the territory. After years of delay, Russia forced the Qing to sign the Treaty of Ili, demanding large compensation and territorial concessions in exchange for the return of Ili.
4. 1900: The Eight-Nation Alliance
The Eight-Nation Alliance, which included Russia, Britain, the United States, France, Germany, Japan, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, mobilized to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in China. Initially consisting of around 30,000 troops, the force swelled to 50,000 at its peak, with Russia contributing 13,000 soldiers—second only to Japan. After the alliance's victory, the Boxer Protocol required China to pay massive indemnities, with Russia receiving the largest share at 29% of the total payment, amounting to 284 million taels of silver, far more than any other nation.
5. 1904-1905: The Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War primarily took place in the Liaodong Peninsula and surrounding seas. Russia suffered a series of humiliating defeats, with China caught in the crossfire. The Treaty of Portsmouth, brokered by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, ended the war, but it also marked the beginning of a series of internal revolutions in Russia, culminating in the 1917 October Revolution and the fall of the Tsarist regime.
6. 1911: Mongolia’s Independence
Following the Xinhai Revolution, Outer Mongolia declared its independence with the support of Russia, further complicating Sino-Russian relations.
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III. The Sino-Soviet Alliance: A Forty-Year Friendship
7. 1919–1920: The Sino-Soviet Declaration
The Soviet Union issued two declarations to China, formally abrogating the 1896 Treaty, the 1901 Beijing Protocol, and any agreements made between Japan and Russia from 1907 to 1916, signaling a new phase of diplomatic relations.
8. 1949: The Establishment of the People's Republic of China
When the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949, the Soviet Union was the first country to recognize it and establish diplomatic relations.
9. 1950: The Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance
In 1950, the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship was signed, formalizing the alliance between China and the Soviet Union, which provided substantial aid to China during its first and second Five-Year Plans. Soviet aid focused on building industrial infrastructure, particularly the \"156 projects,\" and loans totaling 5.676 billion rubles were extended to China.
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IV. The Sino-Soviet Split: Thirty Years of Estrangement
10. 1960: The End of Soviet Aid
In 1960, the Soviet Union abruptly withdrew its economic and technical assistance from China, leading to a period of significant tension between the two countries.
11. 1962: The Sino-Indian Border Conflict
During the 1962 Sino-Indian War, the Soviet Union supported India, exacerbating tensions with China.
12. 1969: The Zhenbao Island Conflict
In 1969, the Sino-Soviet border conflict flared again with clashes on Zhenbao Island.
13. 1979: The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan
When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, China supported the Afghan resistance and boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics in protest.
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V. Normalization: Three Decades of Reconciliation
14. 1989: Gorbachev’s Visit to China
Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited China in 1989, signaling the beginning of a thaw in relations.
15. 1991: The Dissolution of the Soviet Union
On December 27, 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, China officially recognized the Russian Federation.
16. 2001: The Sino-Russian Treaty of Good-Neighborliness
In 2001, China and Russia signed the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, which was renewed in 2021 for another five years.
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VI. Friends, Enemies, and Interests
“There are no permanent friends, only permanent interests.”
This famous saying, first voiced by British Prime Minister Palmerston in 1848, has since been applied to numerous international relations, including the dynamic between China and Russia. The maxim implies that nations, like individuals, often form alliances based on shared strategic interests, which can change over time.
Though the relationship between China and Russia has fluctuated greatly over the past three centuries, the current bond is largely driven by geopolitical calculations and mutual benefit. The enduring truth of this maxim underscores the fluid and pragmatic nature of international politics.
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